Higher education institutions play a fundamental role in developing students’ intercultural communicative competence (ICC), which is essential for success in both academic and professional arenas in the era of globalization and internationalization. To achieve ICC development, Chinese universities are increasingly engaged in international collaborations, not only by sending Chinese students abroad, but also by enhancing academic resources at home. For instance, many prestigious universities have hired international professors and incorporated the original English textbooks from renowned American institutions (Huang, 2006). Moreover, this institutional emphasis on ICC aligns closely with broader national trends. As China becomes more integrated into the global economy, there is a growing demand for a workforce capable of effective intercultural communication (IC). Consequently, these dynamic underscores the importance of ICC in facilitating effective cross-cultural interactions and collaborations in both academic (Yang & Pan, 2019) and professional settings (Dai & Feng, 2025; Gui, 2024). Recent research has underscored the importance of ICC in Chinese higher education. Feng et al. (2025) underscored the imperative of incorporating ICC into higher education curricula to equip students for global participation. Wang et al. (2025) examined trends in internationalization at home (IaH), asserting that integrating international perspectives into domestic educational environments improves students' ICC.

De Wit and Altbach (2021) defined internationalization in higher education as a deliberate process of incorporating an international, intercultural, or global aspect into the objectives, operations, and provision of post-secondary education, aimed at improving the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and making a significant contribution to society. However, it is important to recognize that due to economic constraints or academic reasons (under expected GPA or admission score), a limited number of students could study overseas or attend China’s prestigious universities, but the majority could only fulfill their internationalization requirements through IaH. IaH transcends the physical travel of individuals to globalize the education of students who remain in their country (Wächter, 2003; Wang et al., 2025). This study defines IaH as the “deliberate integration of international and intercultural components into both the formal and informal curriculum for all students within domestic settings” (Beelen & Jones, 2015). The formal curriculum encompasses syllabus, instruction plans, and the mandatory necessary for degree attainment (ICC course to earn credits), while the informal curriculum pertains to various proactive activities students participate in within educational environments beyond the classroom.

The advancement of ICC in China has evolved significantly over recent decades, shaped by globalization, economic reforms, and educational policies. IC courses appeared in universities as advocated by Hu (1999), and the accession to the WTO expedited cross-cultural corporate exchanges. In 2020, the Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE) proposed the English Language Teaching Guidelines, which expressly included the enhancement of students’ ICC as a goal, marking the inaugural incorporation of ICC into national language education standards.

Despite efforts to advance ICC, a disparity persists between ranked universities (RUs) (the Project Double-first Class, 985, and 211 universities) and general universities (GUs) (other universities besides the above-mentioned categories). Numerous obstacles stemming from resource disparities, prestigious or geographic constraints, and economic or social factors remain impeding GUs from ICC development. In contrast, students at RUs found internationalization activities more accessible, and their ICC was much improved by participation in these events than their counterparts at GUs. This difference was brought to light by a study conducted by Ma and Yue (2015), which involved 1,264 students from 39 different universities and verified that RU students were more accessible to ICC through student mobility, international cooperation, and research collaboration by hosting international debates, forums, and workshops (Zhuang et al., 2024).

Likewise, several disparities limit students’ IC exposure. One major gap lies in faculty composition. RUs tend to attract significantly more faculty members with international experience. A survey of 1,200 Chinese universities conducted in 2020 revealed that faculty holding international degrees or with more than two years of overseas learning account for 25–40% in RUs, whereas the figure for GUs remains below 5% (Ministry of Education, 2020). Regarding attracting international students, GUs may lack attraction, either for prestigious reasons or geographical convenience. For example, Beijing and Shanghai usually attract the largest number of international students, while remote areas (e.g., Guizhou, Yunnan) may receive fewer than 500 annually (Lu et al., 2023).

There is also a notable absence of a comprehensive and well-defined instructional model for developing ICC that specifically addresses the needs of students in GUs. Existing frameworks often fail to consider educational disparities in China, thereby limiting their applicability in under-resourced contexts. Although Byram’s (1997) and Deardorff’s (2009) models provide valuable conceptual foundations for ICC, they offer limited practical guidance for designing instructional strategies tailored to institutions with minimal international exposure. These models tend to focus on defining learning outcomes but provide insufficient direction on how to implement ICC instruction effectively in resource-constrained settings. To address this gap, the current study aims to design a model to cultivate students’ ICC in a GU and to evaluate its effectiveness. Accordingly, the study addresses the following research questions:

1. How to design a model to cultivate students’ ICC in a General university in China?

2. To what extent does the ICC instruction model help students improve ICC?

Cultural And Contextual Understanding Beyond Linguistic Proficiency: Redefining ICC

ICC has been generally defined as the ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural situations and to relate appropriately in a variety of cultural contexts (Bennett & Castiglioni, 2004; Byram, 1997). It describes the capacity to interact effectively with people from different cultures from our own, and it acknowledges the fundamental role of language differences, and therefore the need for linguistic alongside cultural competence, in many intercultural encounters (Wilkinson, 2020). Yet, with the advent of World Englishes, the growing acceptance and normalization of diverse English varieties have reshaped expectations around language use in intercultural contexts, meaning linguistic competence is no longer a rigid barrier that it once posed to effective communication (Canagarajah, 2007). Given this, the ICC definition in the current research will not highlight linguistic competence.

The establishment of the ICC is grounded in a nuanced understanding of dismantled terms, i.e., culture, intercultural, intercultural competence, and communicative competence. Synthesizing these dimensions, ICC refers to the capacity to interact effectively with people from diverse cultural backgrounds by drawing on sufficient intercultural knowledge of both the source culture (e.g., Chinese culture) and international cultures. Effective engagement in such contexts demands a positive and open attitude, as well as communicative skills that promote comprehensibility and intelligibility.

Contextualizing ICC Instruction: Bridging Theory And Practice In GU

ICC development necessitates the implementation of effective instructional models, and curriculum design plays a pivotal role in this endeavour. According to Aytaç and Kaygısız (2021), curriculum designs are broadly categorized into three models: subject-centered, learner-centered, and problem-centered. Among these, the problem-centered model structures the curriculum around real-life issues, thereby allowing students to engage in authentic learning experiences and develop transferable skills for solving real-world problems. Such a form of experiential learning is particularly suitable for GUs, where limited resources often constrain opportunities for international exposure. Its flexibility and affordability make it a practical choice, while its capacity to simulate intercultural experiences provides students with meaningful engagement. MOOCs provide cost-effective, flexible access to diverse cultural content and global perspectives. Interactive classroom strategies simulate real-world intercultural situations, allowing students to explore attitudes, beliefs, and communication styles in a structured yet dynamic environment. Reflective writing fosters metacognitive awareness, helping learners to internalize intercultural concepts and evaluate their own assumptions and behaviours. Together, these experiential tools offer an inclusive, scalable, and pedagogically sound model for fostering ICC in contexts where traditional study-abroad or immersion experiences are not feasible.

While prior research has explored ICC from various aspects, addressing the challenges in ICC development for GUs requires the implementation of structured and context-sensitive intervention models. To support this, numerous theoretical frameworks have been suggested to inform ICC education, each possessing distinct advantages and drawbacks in cultivating ICC. Byram's (1997) model is one of the most recognized. It comprised five key components: attitude, knowledge, skill of interpreting and relating, skill of discovery and interaction, and critical cultural awareness. While his model included certain skills, it provides limited practical guidance for fostering ICC through experiential and interactive learning strategies. Likewise, Deardorff's (2006) process model of intercultural competence presents a process-oriented framework involving internal and external outcomes. The former encompasses attitudes such as respect, openness, and flexibility; adaptability to different communication styles; and empathy. The latter refers to the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in an intercultural context. While her model explains ICC at the individual level, it does not adequately address the role of educational settings, thus offering limited direction for how institutions can promote ICC through curriculum and pedagogy.

In the context of technology advancements, recent studies have proposed pedagogical strategies emphasizing effective digital and blended ICC instruction (Cheng, 2025; Iswandari & Ardi, 2022; Lee et al., 2023; Muszyńska et al., 2023). These methods illustrate how technology-mediated environments can enhance ICC. Sun (2016) proposed an ICC model, which has been viewed as one of the representatives of ICC theoretical models in China, and Gu (2017) proposed a theoretical model for ICC training that is considered more compatible with foreign language teaching in China. Although Sun's model provides practical use, it fails to address digital communication, virtual exchange, or global capabilities beyond linguistic abilities, making it less suitable for post-COVID educational contexts where blended and virtual intercultural communication learning is essential. Furthermore, it is predominantly tailored for foreign language majors in China, constraining its wider usefulness. Gu's model similarly presents essential constructs, including interaction, global/local awareness, and value systems; however, it lacks explicit guidance for implementing these elements in classroom practices, assessments, or quantifiable learning outcomes, rendering it predominantly theoretical and challenging to operationalize in educational contexts.Given these constraints, there is a pressing need for an ICC instructional model whereby not only builds on the strengths of existing frameworks but is also tailored for the context of GU by intentionally integrating experiential learning opportunities to ensure students develop ICC meaningfully.

The Impact Of Teacher Cognition On Student ICC Development

The exploration of educators’ cognition toward ICC and learners’ ICC level may explain why GUs need ICC instruction and why Chinese students tend to exhibit a moderate ICC level. Teacher cognition, as articulated by Borg (2019), encompasses the knowledge, beliefs, and thoughts possessed by educators. Consequently, most of the prior research on ICC cognition emphasizes instructors rather than students, as teachers' knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions regarding ICC may influence the intercultural content delivered in the classroom (Megawati et al., 2020). Teachers’ perceptions of ICC are shaped by the coexistence of multiple languages and cultures (Zhang, Su, & Lütge, 2024). Research has shown that Chinese university English teachers’ conceptualization of ICC and its relevance to English teaching is vague (Li & Han, 2011; Gu, 2016). Besides, from a quantitative perspective, Lei (2020) acknowledged that Chinese pre-service English teachers’ ICC is only moderate, with an average score of 3.20 (the score range is 1-5). The present work does not aim to elevate instructors' ICC conceptualization levels, but rather to motivate educators to take initiative and exert greater effort.

Disparities In ICC Among Chinese Undergraduates

The existing study revealed inadequacies in Chinese students’ ICC (Zhou et al., 2024), indicating that their overall competence level remains moderate (Moradi & Ghabanchi, 2019), and the moderate level is associated with six dimensions: awareness, attitude, skills, strategies, critical thinking, and knowledge. Gao's (2016) findings indicated that the ICC level of Chinese studies varies depending on the type of university, gender, and subject classification. The score attained in the knowledge module indicated that third-grade pupils demonstrate superior academic performance relative to their first and second-grade counterparts. Conversely, the scores of the other five categories for second-grade pupils exceed those of both first and third grades. Furthermore, students engaged in liberal arts have enhanced performance relative to their peers in the scientific disciplines. Ultimately, in the two distinct modules of knowledge and critical thinking, 985 universities, 211 universities, and GUs exhibit a declining trend. Although Gao's research is thorough, it has limited applicability for classroom teaching implementation.

Building Cultural Confidence To Address Chinese Cultural Aphasia (CCA)

CCA denotes a scenario in which international culture predominates over Chinese culture among language learners. Chinese students often assess their own culture against external standards and view it as inferior to other civilizations (Zheng & Gao, 2019). In summary, Chinese cultural confidence is lacking (Iswandari & Ardi, 2022; Yang et al., 2025; Zhou et al., 2024). The manifestation of CCA may be attributed to educators' insufficient emphasis on Chinese culture (Gong et al., 2022). Research indicates that numerous English language instructors in China primarily emphasize Western cultural content, frequently overlooking the incorporation of Chinese cultural components in their pedagogy (Wang, 2021). This issue is further compounded by language learners' pursuit of a particular goal (Yan, 2022), namely, attaining native speaker fluency, which necessitates students removing themselves from their cultural background and acknowledging the inherent power dynamics favouring native speakers in any given engagement (Tenzer & Pudelko, 2017). Considering these challenges, it is necessary to alleviate the symptoms of CCA and enhance cultural confidence to improve ICC.

The Triad-Layers ICC model responds to CCA by embedding source culture content into each phase of instruction. Unlike existing models that emphasize global cultural exposure without adequately addressing students’ cultural roots, this approach deliberately integrates both cultural knowledge. In the pre-class phase, MOOCs include modules on Chinese culture viewed from both insider and outsider perspectives. Interactive in-class activities create opportunities for cultural comparison and dialogue, promoting learners to critically evaluate and confidently represent Chinese cultural values. Finally, post-class reflective writing deepens students’ understanding of their culture and equips them to navigate intercultural contexts. This design moves beyond outcome-based frameworks like Byram’s and Deardorff’s by providing practical, resource-sensitive strategies to cultivate cultural confidence alongside intercultural skills.

Theoretical Framework Of The Study

The framework begins with outlining the three core dimensions of ICC as identified in Deardorff’s and Byram’s models: attitude, knowledge, and skills. Each dimension is broken down into its specific components in the next tier. Attitude covers respect, openness, and curiosity, knowledge embraces both the knowledge of the source and the international culture, and skills embody listening, observing, assessing, analysing, interpreting, and relating. The third tier highlights the theoretical foundation of the ICC instruction, drawing on Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of social constructivism, which emphasizes that learning is socially mediated and scaffolded through meaningful interactions. In line with this, post-COVID scholarship highlights blended and digital pedagogies as vital for ICC in non-mobile populations (Huang & Zhang, 2025). Building on this foundation, instruction is structured into three distinct phases. In the pre-class phase, MOOCs are utilized to preview content and activate students’ prior knowledge, and prepare students for deeper classroom engagement. Next, during the in-class phase, a range of interactive strategies is employed, including lectures, role-playing, simulations, cross-cultural dialogue, arts comparison, story-circle, culture contrasts, and case studies (Landis & Brislin, 2004). Finally, the post-class phase focuses on reflection and continued cross-cultural dialogue, enabling students to reinforce, internalize, and personalize their learning experiences.

To address research question one, the Triad-Layers ICC instructional model was designed based on a needs analysis of general university (GU) students in China, informed by literature review findings and established ICC frameworks. The model integrates the principles of IaH and leverages formal education through structured classroom instruction.

Pre-And Post-Test

To answer the second research question, the result of the pre- and post-tests was demonstrated (Table 2). The mean score of the participants, before participating in the ICC course, was 43.45 out of 135 (SD=9.44). The total mean score was 56.75 out of 135 (SD=10.88), which was higher than the pre-test mean score, indicating a meaningful gain after the intervention. The ICC introduction section rose from 13.00 to 15.35 out of 40 (SD = 4.78, 5.90), while source culture knowledge increased from 5.30 to 7.65 out of 14 (SD = 2.50, 3.16). The mean score for international culture improved from 4.60 to 5.75 out of 14 (SD = 2.08, 2.79). In the skills component, scores advanced from 14.25 to 17.40 out of 28 (SD = 3.68, 4.68). The attitude section rose from 4.75 to 7.25 out of 14 (SD = 3.25, 3.19), and case analysis scores increased from 1.55 to 3.35 out of 25 (SD = 1.60, 3.34).

Alleviating The ICC Gap In GU And Combating CCA

The findings provide strong empirical support for the claim that GU in China faces a significant gap in students’ ICC, a concern echoed in prior literature (Ma & Yue, 2015). This disparity is evident in the pre-test and post-test overall scores, which are only 43.45 and 56.75 out of 135, respectively. However, the present study demonstrates that significant ICC development is still achievable in GU contexts through a well-designed, resource-sensitive instructional model. The implementation of the Triad-Layers Model enabled students to achieve measurable gains in ICC in the IaH context. ICC total score improved from pre-test to post-test, with a Cohen’s d of 1.40, indicating that the model is likely effective. These findings resonated with the extant research (Beelen & Jones, 2015), which advocates for a deliberate redesign of teaching and learning to internationalize the curriculum at home, particularly for students with limited access to overseas exchange.

Regarding combating CCA, the post-test results revealed a notable increase in source culture knowledge (M = +2.35), indicating that the model was effective in addressing CCA. By centring source culture knowledge alongside international content, the model ensures that students are not just passive recipients of global knowledge but also active cultural contributors. The findings are echoed by Liddicoat and Scarino (2013), who argue that intercultural learning should involve a reflective process of comparing, contrasting, and interpreting both self and other.

However, one thing worth noting is that when students ranked effective activities, MOOCs did not appear. One possible reason for the lower ranking of MOOCs is the asynchronous and self-directed nature, which places greater engagement and comprehension. Some participants may have approached the MOOCs passively, treating them as optional rather than integral to the course. To enhance the effectiveness of the MOOC component, it is critical to strengthen its integration within the broader instructional design. One practical approach could be to implement accountability mechanisms, such as graded quizzes based on MOOC content. As noted in Garrison and Vaughan (2009), effective blended learning requires deliberate alignment between asynchronous and synchronous components to maximize student engagement and learning outcomes.

Minimal Gains In ICC Introduction Session And Cultural Knowledge: Instructional Design Implications

Chapters 1 to 4 of the instruction session in the teaching plan are designed to introduce ICC to help participants prepare for later classroom activities by understanding the most basic ICC concepts, e.g., the relationship between communication and culture, cultural perception, and communication and language. However, the result of the test indicated a relatively low effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.41), suggesting limited gains in student learning compared to other parts of the course. This outcome is consistent with findings from the interviews. As three participants remarked, “I think it is the same as a normal English class, I feel bored and difficult to hear many terms” (P13). This likely reflects the lecture-heavy instructional approach, offering limited opportunities for student interaction or engagement. These findings highlight the importance of maintaining a student-centred approach, even in sessions focused on theoretical content. Incorporating more engaging delivery methods, simplified explanations, and interactive elements could have enhanced students’ understanding and interest in the material.

Similarly, improvement in students’ international culture was modest (Cohen’s d = 0.37). One possible explanation is an instructional imbalance between the source culture and international culture knowledge. While addressing CCA is undeniably valuable, there is a risk that overemphasizing source culture may inadvertently limit students’ opportunities to engage with diverse global perspectives. Future iterations of the Triad-Layers model could address such an issue by deliberately integrating more interactive modules on international culture within the pre-class MOOCs and in-class activities. For instance, virtual dialogues with international peers and case studies of global cultural conflicts.

The study has three limitations. First, the study was conducted as a short-term intervention (16 weeks), measuring students’ ICC gains immediately after the instructional period. Although the pre- and post-test results indicated meaningful improvements in intercultural attitudes, skills, and source culture knowledge, the question of long-term retention remains unanswered. Therefore, longitudinal studies are needed to track whether students maintain or deepen their ICC development after the course, especially as they encounter real-world intercultural situations. Specifically, a delayed post-test or follow-up evaluation may determine the effects of long-term development. Second, the study was conducted within a single GU. The results may not fully generalize to rural or remote, different types of institutions, for example, vocational colleges. Third, the relatively small sample size (n=40) limits the generalizability of the findings. A larger and more diverse sample across multiple constitutions would enhance the robustness of the results and allow for comparative analysis between different types of universities.

By proposing and testing the Triad-Layers ICC model, grounded in Vygotsky’s social constructivism and emphasizing experiential learning, this research demonstrated that a well-designed curriculum intervention can significantly enhance students’ ICC in resource-constrained settings. This study contributes uniquely to ICC literature by tailoring pedagogy to non-elite university contexts, offering practical strategies that are both scalable and culturally grounded—thereby filling a critical implementation gap.

The findings revealed statistically significant improvements across all measured ICC dimensions, attitude, knowledge, skills, and practical application, with particularly strong gains in the source culture knowledge and skills. The qualitative data further supported these results, showing that students shifted from viewing cultural differences as barriers to embracing them as opportunities, engaged more actively in intercultural interactions, and developed strategies to navigate stereotypes and conflicts. Notably, the model also helped mitigate CCA by reinforcing cultural confidence. However, the study also identified areas for refinement, such as the need for more student-centered approaches in the IC general introduction, checking students’ preparation before class, and a better balance between the source and international cultural content.

Regarding implications, for educators and curriculum designers, the model provides a blueprint for integrating ICC into GU curricula. Key strategies include blending MOOCs with interactive classroom activities, but need to inspect the preparation at the beginning of the class; furthermore, the balancing between source and international culture content is a question that needs attention to combat CCA while fostering global competence. The current study suggests some topics for future investigations. We acknowledge that our study does not represent a comprehensive analysis of all ICC challenges and needs development within diverse educational contexts. Future investigation could compare studies across different university tiers (e.g., vocational colleges) to assess model adaptability. Similarly, exploring teachers’ perspectives on implementing the Triad-Layers model would provide valuable guidance for scaling and institutionalizing ICC instruction in diverse pedagogical contexts.

Acknowledgement: This research work is part of a doctoral dissertation entitled Cultivating Chinese Higher Education Students’ Intercultural Communicative Competence by Using Triad-Layers ICC Model in a GU in China, a fulfillment of the Ph.D. degree in English for Professional Development at Mae Fah Luang University. The author would like to thank Mae Fah Luang University for supporting this research study. The author would like to thank Pu’er Tea College, West Yunnan University of Applied Sciences, for supporting the research.

Conflicts of intereststatements: Zheng Yang has two affiliations: as a Ph.D. candidate at Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand, and as a lecturer at Pu’er Tea College, West Yunnan University of Applied Sciences, China. The copyright of this paper belongs to Mae Fah Luang University as part of her graduation dissertation. The authors declare that they have no known conflicts of interest, financial or personal, that could have influenced the work reported in this paper..

Authors' contribution statements: Zheng Yang designed the model and computational framework, then analyzed the data. Zheng Yang performed the calculations and led the manuscript writing. Wilawan Champakaew and Sasima Charubusp supervised the research and were responsible for the study’s overall direction and planning.

Funding statements: As there was no external funding received for this research, the study was conducted without financial support from any funding agency or organization.

Data availability statement: The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and/or its supplementary materials. Please contact the corresponding author for any additional information on data access or usage.

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and contributor(s) and do not necessarily reflect JICC's or editors' official policy or position. All liability for harm done to individuals or property as a result of any ideas, methods, instructions, or products mentioned in the content is expressly disclaimed.