Positioning of “Self” and “Other” in the Intercultural Art Communication: a Case Study on Chinese Reverse Glass Painting

Luxi Zhang

doi:10.36923/jicc.v25i2.1076

Open Access Article Intercultural Communication

Luxi Zhang ⁽¹⁾

1. Faculty of Philology and Cultural Studies, University of Innsbruck, Austria

https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v25i2.1076

Issue
Vol. 25 No. 2 (2025)

Submitted
2025 January 20

Accepted
2025 April 11

Published
2025 June 3

Keywords:

The Self and the Other, Art Appreciation, Intercultural Communication, Chinese Reverse Glass Painting, Cognitive Positioning, Cultural Identity, Linguistic Strategies

Ask AI (Dimensions)

Download PDF

Abstract

The distinction between the Self and the Other is a foundational concept across disciplines such as sociology, philosophy, cultural studies, anthropology, and psychology. This study examines the dynamic processes by which individuals position the Self and the Other in intercultural communication, with particular focus on how people interpret artistic works from unfamiliar cultures through processes of categorization and identity assignment. Ten participants from diverse cultural backgrounds, none of whom had prior expertise in Chinese art, were invited to interpret a Chinese reverse glass painting; the recorded interviews provided the empirical corpus for analysis. Employing Hausendorf’s Task–Means–Form analytical model (2000, 2002), the study identifies how participants utilize linguistic strategies—including plural pronouns, evaluative adjectives, geographical indicators, and other discourse markers—to engage in referencing, describing, interpreting, evaluating, attributing, and categorizing. Through these discursive practices, participants negotiate cultural meaning, differentiate social groups, and construct their own identity positions in relation to the unfamiliar artwork. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of cognitive positioning processes within intercultural encounters and offer insights into the broader mechanisms of meaning-making in intercultural art communication.

Full text article

Generated from XML file

References

Anderson, E. C., Carleton, R. N., Diefenbach, M., & Han, P. K. (2019). The relationship between uncertainty and affect. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2504. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02504 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Argyriadis, A., Argyriadi, A., & Drakopoulou, O. (2023). Talking to the different other: Intercultural communication through art. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies, 36(2), 277–282. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Austin, J. (1962). How to do things with words (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Bamberg, M. (2022). Positioning the Subject Agency Between Master and Counter. In S. Bosančić, F. Brodersen, L. Pfahl, L. Schürmann, T. Spies & B. Traue (Eds.), Positioning the Subject: Methodologies of Subjectivation Research (pp. 25-41) Google Scholar | WorldCat

Fleming, M. (2023). Arts, language and intercultural education. Language Teaching Research, 27(2), 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211044244 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Gao, X. (2009). Interkulturelles Verstehen durch Kunst im Zeitalter der Globalisierung [Intercultural understanding through art in the age of globalization] [Doctoral thesis, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München]. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Hahn, A. (1994). Die soziale Konstruktion des Fremden (The social construction of foreignness). In W. M. Sprondel (Ed.), Die Objektivität der Ordnung und ihre kommunikative Konstruktion (pp. 140–163). Suhrkamp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-322-80550-8_2 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Hausendorf, H. (2000). Zugehörigkeit durch Sprache: Eine linguistische Studie am Beispiel der deutschen Wiedervereinigung [Belonging through language: A linguistic study using the example of German reunification]. Max Niemeyer Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110920024 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Hausendorf, H. (2002). Kommunizierte Fremdheit: Zur Konversationsanalyse von Zugehörigkeitsdarstellungen [Communicated strangeness: A conversation analysis of representations of belonging]. In H. Kotthoff (Ed.), Kultur(en) im Gespräch (pp. 25–60). de Gruyter. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Hegel, G. W. F. (1986). Werke. Band 10: Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse [Works. Volume 10: Encyclopaedia of the philosophical sciences in basic outline]. Suhrkamp. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Hirschauer, S. (2014). Un/doing differences: Die Kontingenz sozialer Zugehörigkeiten [Un/doing differences: The contingency of social belongings]. Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 43(3), 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfsoz-2014-0302 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Jonas, K., & Mast, M. S. (2007). Stereotyp und Vorurteil (Stereotype and prejudice). In J. Straub, A. Weidemann & D. Weidemann (Eds.), Handbuch interkulturelle Kommunikation und Kompetenz: Grundbegriffe, Theorien, Anwendungsfelder [Handbook of intercultural communication and competence: Key concepts, theories, fields of application] (pp. 69-75). J.B. Metzler.Katz, D., & Braly, K. (1933). Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28(3), 280–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074049 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. Macmillan. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Meyer, R. (2017). BOL Chinesische Hinterglasmalerei aus der Sammlung Mei Lin. Hirmer Verlag GmbH. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Mitasova, S. (2024). Intercultural communication in contemporary art: From provocation to integration. Filozofija i društvo, 35(1), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.2298/FID2401141M Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Muntean, L., & Vesa, A. (2019). Intercultural education through art. In K. M. Barth, M. Brie, D. Dărăbăneanu, & I. Polgár (Eds.), The role of intercultural communication in adapting ethnic groups to the European Union social space (pp. 221–229). Lambert Academic Publishing. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Müller, M., & Kluwe, S. (2012). Identitätsentwürfe in der Kunstkommunikation: Studien zur Praxis der sprachlichen und multimodalen Positionierung im Interaktionsraum, Kunst [Conceptions of identity in art communication: Studies on the practice of linguistic and multimodal positioning in the interaction space, art]. de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110278415 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Quasthoff, U. M. (1973). Soziales Vorurteil und Kommunikation: Eine sprachwissenschaftliche Analyse des Stereotyps [Social prejudice and communication: A linguistic analysis of the stereotype]. Athenäum Verlag. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Quasthoff, U. M. (1989). Social prejudice as a resource of power: Towards the functional ambivalence of stereotypes. John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/ct.7.13qua Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Rosch, E. H. (1973). On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language (pp. 328–350). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-505850-6.50010-4 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Straub, J. (2007). Kultur [Culture]. In J. Straub, A. Weidemann & D. Weidemann (Eds.), Handbuch interkulturelle Kommunikation und Kompetenz: Grundbegriffe, Theorien, Anwendungsfelder [Handbook of intercultural communication and competence: Key concepts, theories, fields of application] (pp. 7-23). J.B. Metzler. Google Scholar | WorldCat

Straub, J. (2019). Identitäts-Bildung und die Offenheit der Person [Identity formation and the openness of the person]. heiEDUCATION journal, 19 (3) (pp. 7-62). https://doi.org/10.17885/heiup.heied.2019.3.23944 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 25(4), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb00620.x Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Ye, Z. (2024). Cross-cultural communication and diversity in contemporary art. Journal of Social Science and Cultural Development, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.70767/jsscd.v1i2.363 Google Scholar | Crossref | WorldCat

Authors

Luxi Zhang

https://orcid.org/0009-0001-7001-9589

Author Biography

Luxi Zhang

Luxi Zhang is a PhD student at the Department of German Studies, University of Innsbruck. Her fields of interest include intercultural German studies, Sociolinguistics, Interaction, and Sport Science.

Zhang, L. (2025). Positioning of “Self” and “Other” in the Intercultural Art Communication: a Case Study on Chinese Reverse Glass Painting. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 25(2), 132-147. https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v25i2.1076

Download Citation

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

This journal provides immediate and free open access to all its content and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This means readers are permitted to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author, as long as proper attribution is given. This policy is consistent with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) definition of open access.

How to Cite

Download Citation

Funding data

Universität Innsbruck
Grant numbers #443489

Introduction

As intercultural art exchanges thrive, artworks from diverse cultures increasingly enter the public sphere through exhibitions, social media, films, networks, and other platforms. Intercultural art communication holds not only political, economic, cultural, and aesthetic significance, but also offers audiences experiences that can be exotic, reflexive, and enlightening. As early as the 19th century, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1986) examined the relationship between the Self and the Other, arguing that one’s perception of the Self is constructed in relation to the Other. Straub (2019) views the Self and the Other as a word pair whose elements are not ontologically opposed but are dynamically formed through behavioral construction and projection. Similarly, Hahn (1994) suggests that the construction of the Other must always be understood alongside the construction of the Self—and vice versa—since both processes frequently involve differentiation, segregation, and filtration, thereby giving the Other a “paradoxical function” of “self-identification.” Intercultural art exchange represents a dynamic encounter between the Self and the Other, where the audience's understanding and appreciation of foreign artworks reflect their own cognitive frameworks and socio-cultural experiences.

Several studies have explored the role of art in intercultural education, demonstrating that art serves as a platform for intercultural dialogue, self-reflection, and the reconstruction of identities (Gao, 2009; Muntean and Vesa, 2019; Argyriadis, Argyriadi, and Drakopoulou, 2023; Fleming, 2023). Conversely, intercultural exchanges have also profoundly influenced artistic creation, reshaping mechanisms, themes, and forms in contemporary art (Mitasova, 2024; Ye, 2024). However, little research has explored how people appreciate and interpret artworks from other cultures, specifically through the lens of Self and Other identity construction. In this study, “interpretation” is narrowly defined as a series of positioning actions based on language, encompassing speaking strategies, cognitive behaviors, and knowledge transfer.

Empirical research at the micro-linguistic level significantly contributes to understanding the construction processes of the Self and the Other. This study is based on Hausendorf’s model (2000), which investigates speakers’ socio-cultural intentions through lexical, grammatical, semantic-pragmatic, and strategic forms. Hausendorf (2000, 2002) applied this model to examine how East Germans articulate their sense of identity and to explore discourses and vocational roles within the art industry. His approach provides a valuable methodology for analyzing power distance, institutional organization, and identity formation through both verbal and nonverbal expressions.

This study poses the following research question: How do individuals engage with, interpret, and understand artistic works from other cultures by positioning the Self and the Other? The data is drawn from the author’s own experiences at a Chinese reverse glass painting exhibition held at the Landesmuseum Hannover. Ten visitors, who lacked prior knowledge in Sinology and art, were interviewed regarding their interpretations of one specific painting from the exhibition. These discussions, which captured the interviewees’ personal interpretations, associations, and reflections, were recorded and analyzed. The analysis adopted Hausendorf’s model (2000), transcribed the audio data using GAT-II conventions, and incorporated various linguistic perspectives. The study’s findings indicate that interviewees continuously negotiated their self-identities in response to unfamiliarity, employing strategies such as ambiguous expressions, object comparisons, and categorizing unfamiliar elements within familiar frameworks.

Theoretical background

In this study, “culture” is no longer viewed as a static and bounded concept, but rather as a unity of both material manifestations and socio-cultural practices. According to Straub’s culture theory (2007), culture is “a practical system of symbols, knowledge, and directions,” which serves as a reference system for “those who participate in it” (Straub, 2007). At the same time, culture is understood as “the result of a process of interaction, communication, or discursive negotiation,” characterized by “discursive and/or linguistic distinctions or relations” (Straub, 2007). Culture is both a prerequisite for and a product of human activity, resulting from processes of meaning-making, differentiation, and identity formation. Its dynamic nature illustrates how culture is perpetually reconstructed and redefined through cultural contact between the Self and the Other. Therefore, investigating how individuals engage with others through their actual behaviors and expressions becomes paramount.

Differentiation, as conceptualized by Tajfel and Turner (1969), fundamentally concerns how individuals categorize themselves and others into in-groups and out-groups, fostering collective identification and positive self-concepts. Hirschauer (2014) expands this framework by distinguishing functional and associational forms of differentiation at both societal and interactional levels, introducing the concept of “human differentiation”:

Figure 1. Intersection of Forms of Social Differentiation (Hirschauer, 2014)

From this anthropological perspective, humans are viewed as holistic subjects, not only occupying social roles but also embodying cultural and material aspects such as bodies, languages, and beliefs, situated within the soft culture of society. This intersectional model of differentiation highlights the inherent observer relativity in cultural comparisons, generating unbalanced “us/them” dichotomies and the construction of “alien others.” The complexity of this process becomes especially visible in artistic interpretation, where meaning emerges dynamically from the interplay between objective representation and subjective perception, shaped by cultural markers, material-semiotic elements, and reception contexts. Ultimately, differentiation theory underscores the fluid, multi-layered nature of social categorization, revealing how cultural codification, power hierarchies, and observer bias collectively shape human subjectivities in relation to the Self and the Other.

It is evident that the Self and the Other are not two distinct conceptual categories, but rather dynamic projections. Therefore, this study argues that examining the Self and the Other within intercultural contexts should begin with behavioral research, analyzing how individuals define the Self and the Other and reflect on the relationship between them. This behavioral manifestation is referred to here as “positioning,” rather than “understanding,” “interpreting,” or similar terms. In narrative analysis, Bamberg’s theory of positioning (2022) offers a practical model with three layers: the positioning of characters within the story, the narrator’s role in specific interactions, and the broader social discourses that shape identity. Bamberg’s conceptualization of identity as a fluid process holds significant relevance for this study. However, while acknowledging the importance of narratives and storytelling, this study shifts the analytical focus toward specific language expressions, thereby bridging the gap between macro-narrative analysis and micro-level language use.

This study adopts a qualitative research methodology, drawing on authentic data collected through interviews. By analyzing the interviewees’ lexical choices, syntactic structures, grammatical patterns, and rhetorical strategies, the research seeks to illuminate the ongoing process of positioning. This approach enables a nuanced exploration of how individuals discursively construct and negotiate their identities in relation to others within the context of intercultural interaction.

Methodology

This study is based on a corpus derived from interviews conducted around a single artwork from the Chinese reverse glass painting exhibition at the Landesmuseum Hannover. Among the 50 paintings displayed in the exhibition, one was selected based on its universally understandable everyday themes, rather than purely religious, mythical, or imaginative themes, and its clearly depicted figures and recognizable objects. Reverse glass painting, a popular form of home decoration during the modern era in China, combines glass craftsmanship with a blend of traditional and Western elements. Its accessibility made it suitable for the interviewees, offering a wide range of possible interpretations. The exhibition thus provided an opportunity to introduce this unique form of modern art to a European audience.

The author actively participated in the exhibition, during which the research questions were formulated and a pilot study was conducted. Following the pilot interview, it was decided to provide the interviewees with more information in advance about the genre of reverse glass painting and the figures depicted in the selected artwork. In order to minimize the author's influence on the participants' responses, the author refrained from asking specific questions during the interviews and instead encouraged the interviewees to express their feelings and opinions based on the introductory text provided. When necessary, the author answered questions related to object identification but avoided interrupting the interviewees' narratives. As a result, the data was collected in a format that is less dialogic and more monologic.

Between March 1st and May 31st, ten interviewees were recruited via email from the campus of Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. The participants were specifically selected for not having backgrounds in Sinology or art, while their nationalities, ages, and academic disciplines were not controlled. Each interviewee received an introductory text via email in advance and scheduled an in-person interview with the author at Café Central on campus. Each interview lasted approximately 10 to 15 minutes and ended whenever the interviewees felt they had concluded their responses. The total recording time of the 10 interviews amounted to 139 minutes. Since the study was originally conducted within the framework of German Studies, the interviews were conducted in German and later translated into English for transcription and analysis. Below is the introductory text that was sent to the interviewees via email:

Figure 2.Introductory Text for the intervieweesSource: Meyer, Rupprecht (2017): BOL Chinesische Hinterglasmalerei aus der Sammlung Mei Lin. Hirmer Verlag GmbH, München.

The basic information about the interviewees is as follows:

Table 1. Information about the Interviewees
Name(pseudonym)	Sex	Nationality	Major
Kara	female	Germany	Chemistry
Yan	female	Tunisia	German as a Foreign Language
Gill	male	South Korea	German as a Foreign Language
Peter	male	Germany	Physics
Fiona	female	Tunisia	German as a Foreign Language
Stefan	male	Germany	Politics
Pearl	female	Belgium	German as a Foreign Language
Ann	female	Kazakhstan	German as a Foreign Language
Alice	female	Poland	German as a Foreign Language
Martin	male	Germany	Economy

Source: By the author

Subsequently, appointments for face-to-face recordings were arranged with each interviewee. Most of the time, the interviewees spoke freely, guided by the introductory text provided in advance. When they asked questions or sought clarification, the author engaged in the discussion, making the interviews resemble conversations between the author and the interviewees.

This study is theoretically grounded in constructionism and phenomenology, aiming to uncover implicit cognitive frameworks through pragmatic expression. From this perspective, the research situates itself within the domains of intercultural communication and sociolinguistics, adopting the “task–means–form” model developed by Hausendorf (2000), which offers a structured approach to analyzing language behavior in specific social contexts. The term “task” primarily refers to the speaker’s social behavior, expressed as either a "speech act" (Austin, 1962) or a communicative strategy. A distinction is made between “task” and “speech act,” with “task” representing behavior within particular social contexts that may vary depending on the situation, while “speech act” focuses on generalized language strategies such as advice, questions, or contradictions. This study seeks to analyze participants' concrete attitudes and viewpoints in intercultural situations; therefore, the concept of “task” is adopted in preference to “speech act.”

At the next two levels, “means” refers to the construction of meaning through semantic and pragmatic analysis, while “form” operates at a more microscopic level, examining lexical items, syntactic structures, grammatical organization, and paraverbal elements.

Foreign experiences in art demand self-reflection, drawing viewers into a “game” between “verbalized concepts” and “aesthetically intangible phenomena” (Gao, 2009). On one hand, aesthetic experiences based on biological perception are continuous; on the other hand, these experiences can be categorized conceptually, allowing the viewer to verbalize and assign values to what they perceive. In this study, all acts of conceptualization and verbalization are examined from the perspective of the construction of the Self and the Other. Through description and interpretation, viewers attempt to process unfamiliar elements by integrating them into their existing knowledge frameworks.

At the level of "means," the study examines how meanings and connotations are constructed. In addition to continuous categorization, generalizing and hedging strategies are widely observed in the empirical data, often signaling uncertainty and conflict avoidance (Anderson, Carleton, Diefenbach et al., 2019). At the level of "forms," the data includes not only lexical and grammatical features but also rhetorical devices such as metaphor, ellipsis, irony, and narrative, as well as paraverbal features such as prosody, tone of voice, and volume. The findings indicate that positioning the Self and the Other is achieved through multiple, interconnected tasks manifested in language production. Each example illustrates how specific tasks contribute to cultural communication. It is also important to note that these tasks should not be viewed as isolated behaviors; rather, they are often intertwined. Completing one task may simultaneously imply or fulfill additional tasks.

In this empirical study, the positioning of the Self and the Other is summarized across three layers. At the task layer, six tasks are defined: Referencing, Describing, Interpreting, Evaluating, Attributing, and Categorizing. From the data associated with each task, it can be observed that interviewees employ multiple speech strategies ("means"), which manifest in various micro-linguistic forms. It should be emphasized that the listed means and forms do not exhaustively cover all aspects of human communication, nor do they occur in isolation within the data. These lexical, syntactic, textual, paralinguistic, and non-linguistic markers were selected with reference to Hausendorf’s (2002) empirical study on the sense of belonging, though certain adjustments were made to fit the specific focus and data of this study. For example, the form of “elliptic sentences” was intentionally included due to the noticeable hesitation displayed by interviewees on this topic. Since interpreting and describing are particularly crucial for art interpretation, “predicate of characteristics” was also added as a category of special interest. For the analysis, the software MAXQDA was used to play the audio recordings while annotating the occurrences of the language markers within the model. Additional means and forms may need to be identified for future studies addressing other topics.

Figure 3.Model of Positioning the Self and the Other. Source: By the author.

Results

Referencing

Referencing constitutes one of the initial steps through which the interviewees engage with the painting, reflecting their first perceptions of the artwork and the process of positioning themselves in relation to it. In this study, the interviewees received an introductory text about the painting and the task via email before the interview and were also allowed to contemplate or conduct brief research on the topic of reverse glass painting. Therefore, their first impressions of the painting are regarded as “referencing” within the context of this study.

Distancing

Figure 4.A fragment from the interview with Alice

Using the emphasized adjectives “difficult” (Alice) and “new” (Alice), she expresses the considerable effort she made to understand the painting. The artwork is described as something new “for me” (Alice)—the personal pronoun “me” indicating an egocentric positioning, where she places the Self in a prioritized position opposite the unfamiliar artwork. The verb “google” (Alice) reflects her action upon first encountering the painting, with “Google” symbolizing "universal knowledge" and "intelligence" in this context, providing her with a systematic framework when faced with something foreign. Furthermore, the mention of the nation’s name “Poland” (Alice) and the plural pronoun “we” (Alice) function as markers of group identity, expressing the speaker’s sense of belonging. In summary, this sequence demonstrates how the interviewee, when initially confronted with the painting, experiences confusion and seeks external support, thus distancing herself from the artwork. She later attributes this unfamiliarity to national differences, affirming her own identity as “we” (Alice) and positioning the painting as “they” (Alice). Distancing oneself from foreign artwork serves as a pragmatic strategy and represents one of the first referencing steps in the process of intercultural art communication.

Eye-Catching

Another significant referencing strategy is what may be termed “eye-catching.” Identifying something as eye-catching is an emotionally charged act. It is random, highly sensory, and individual, yet grounded in the speaker’s everyday experiences and socio-cultural expectations. An example of this behavior is observed in the interview when the clothing and hairstyle of the figures in the picture captured attention:

Figure 5.A fragment from the interview with Ann

The behavioral predicate “standing out” (Ann) is used as a speech strategy to highlight elements that seem particularly different or surprising to the interviewee, which are interpreted as eye-catching in this study. This is followed by a detailed enumeration of the observed features, whereby she supports her subjective perception with concrete examples from the painting. Ultimately, she describes the eye-catching clothing as “funny” (Ann), an adjective that frames the conspicuousness as abnormal. Identifying something as eye-catching represents a strong emotional behavior of positioning the Self in opposition to the Other, whereby the Other is defined as something strange and unfamiliar relative to the Self.

Describing

This section of the study focuses on the speech task employed by the interviewees when they begin describing the painting. The most unfamiliar aspects of the artwork are extensively explored, accompanied by numerous speculations, inquiries, and associations with personal experiences. It is evident that interviewees frequently respond to the artwork based on their prior knowledge of art and their own cultural backgrounds, often drawing parallels to similar situations they have encountered in their lives. Furthermore, when confronted with unfamiliar elements, interviewees tend to raise their intonations, ask questions, and employ hedges to reduce the degree of certainty in their language.

Guessing

Notably, the interviewees extensively use phrases of uncertainty, such as “I think” or “It seems to me…,” to soften their statements. Rather than straightforwardly describing the painting, they primarily engage in guessing its content, revealing hesitation, lack of confidence, and doubt. In the following example, Ann expresses uncertainty regarding the hairstyle of the figures portrayed in the painting:

Throughout this sequence, multiple question forms are used, and her intonation consistently rises, reflecting her uncertainty and hesitation. The questions are followed by the adverb of causality “therefore” (Ann), which she employs to justify her conclusion that “the child is bald” (Ann). She formulates a hypothesis and then attempts to validate it through reasoning and interpretation of the unfamiliar features. When confronted with unfamiliar artwork, individuals may encounter difficulties in identifying objects situated in unexpected or ambiguous contexts. As demonstrated in this interaction, description may be hindered by uncertainty, and hedges serve as a pragmatic strategy to reduce confidence when engaging with the unfamiliar Other.

Figure 6.A fragment from the interview with Ann

Comparing

Another prominent feature in the descriptive process is the use of comparison. Comparison functions as a means of understanding the foreign artwork by relating it to familiar references. In this study, comparisons serve as acts of positioning the Self in relation to the Other, providing practical examples of how interviewees categorize specific characteristics of both themselves and others within the same conceptual framework. The selection of comparative criteria is subjective, allowing interviewees to highlight similarities and differences, thereby positioning themselves either in alignment with or opposition to the artwork. Additionally, interviewees often emphasize differences, attributing them to group-specific cultural characteristics. The following example illustrates how the color of the architectural elements serves as a culturally specific point of comparison:

Figure 7.A fragment from the interview with Kara

In this example, the plural pronouns “we” (Kara) and “us” (Kara) are employed to define two contrasting ethnic groups, representing the Self and the Other. The comparative expression “more colourful” (Kara) is used to contrast the vibrant stained-glass windows typical of European architecture with the more muted tones of the painting, implying that European art is generally more colorful than its Chinese counterpart. Both the objects selected for comparison and the evaluative criteria are chosen by the interviewee. In this case, Kara’s socio-cultural experiences shape her emphasis on color vibrancy as the comparative criterion. The use of negation “not” (Kara) further underscores the distinction between the two styles, situating the Self within the framework of “our” culture and contrasting it with the Other, represented by the more muted grey tones of the painting.

Interpreting

According to Hausendorf (2000), the distinction between “interpreting” and “describing” lies in the fact that interpreting involves deciphering the invisible—uncovering meanings, intentions, and significances embedded within the images. These are not objectively existing facts, but rather interpretations constructed both by the painter and by the viewer. Thus, interpretation is deeply connected to social, contextual, and historical factors, which is why it plays a crucial role in intercultural communication. In this process, viewers reflect upon their own cultural frameworks in relation to specific concepts and examine how these are represented in another culture.

Metaphorical Interpretation

Figure 8.A fragment from the interview with Gill

The use of the adverb “much” (Gill), together with the comparative “bigger” (Gill), suggests that Gill perceives the size of both the mountain and the figures as highly unusual, evoking for him a sense of strangeness and discomfort. This discomfort is further expressed through his hesitant intonation, elongated sounds, the adverb “somehow” (Gill), and the qualifier “maybe” (Gill), as well as through egocentric expressions like “too much” (Gill). In Gill’s cognitive framework, size is metaphorically associated with social significance: when something is large, it carries great meaning or status. Consequently, depicting a person as large as a mountain suggests that the person holds equal significance to the mountain; otherwise, the portrayal feels unnatural. Furthermore, Gill attributes this strangeness to cultural specificity by referencing the collective group “Chinese people” (Gill), thereby generalizing the unfamiliar representation to the entire cultural group and positioning the Self—perceived as normative—in contrast to “Chinese people at that time” (Gill), who are framed as the foreign Other.

Explaining with Examples

In the interpretive process, interviewees frequently employ the strategy of citing examples drawn from personal experience to support their interpretations. The search for examples functions as a comparative mechanism through which similarities are identified and two cultural contexts are juxtaposed. In this study, listing examples is understood as a step following comparison, where interviewees apply deductive reasoning based on similarities they recognize and further elaborate their interpretations by drawing upon their own cultural experiences. This process engages cognitive relationships that go beyond mere description.

For instance, Gill compares the educational systems depicted in the painting with those familiar to him in Korea, enriching his interpretation by providing detailed explanations of Korean schools.

In this context, the educational systems in Korea are introduced as a comparative reference. The geographical indicator “Korean” (Gill), along with the plural pronouns “we” (Gill) and “us” (Gill), as well as the original term hag-dang (학당) (Gill), reflect the interviewee’s sense of familiarity and cultural belonging while articulating this example. The employment of the adjective “real” (Gill) serves to demarcate the boundary between the familiar and the unfamiliar: the architectural structure depicted in the artwork is perceived as not “real” (Gill) within the interviewee’s cultural schema, whereas the “real” school structure exists within the interviewee’s own cultural experience. Furthermore, the interviewee observes that there is “usually” (Gill) a male teacher present in the Korean school setting, which he regards as the normative standard. From the standpoint of his cultural framework, the interviewee selects this particular example to support his comparative reasoning, grounding his interpretation in personally accessible cultural referents.

Figure 9.A fragment from the interview with Gill

F Evaluating

Evaluation constitutes a process by which interviewees subjectively and emotionally assess the painting, drawing upon their prior experiences and cultural frames of reference. This evaluative process encompasses both behavioral and affective dimensions, substantially shaping participants’ comprehension, judgment, and contemplation of the artwork as a whole. Since evaluative judgments serve both functional and practical purposes, the interviewees’ assessments are distributed along a continuum ranging from affirmation to dissent. In instances of positive resonance, interviewees tend to engage with the artwork; conversely, when confronted with discordance or unfamiliarity, they adopt a more distanced or critical stance. This evaluative spectrum reflects both their level of identification with the content and the extent of perceived cultural dissonance.

Affirmative Evaluation

It is essential to emphasize that the act of positioning oneself as an outsider—through mechanisms of comparison, contrast, and categorization—does not inherently carry a negative implication or result in rejection. While labeling something as strange, alien, or unfamiliar may carry connotations of otherness, the act of distancing oneself is a common cognitive strategy in intercultural encounters. This section, therefore, examines the circumstances under which individuals position themselves as outsiders while simultaneously striving to establish proximity and mutual understanding with the unfamiliar artwork. Consequently, the present study adopts the terms “affirmative evaluation” and “dissenting evaluation” to provide a more nuanced distinction, intentionally avoiding the simplistic binary of “positive” and “negative” evaluation.

Figure 10.A fragment from the interview with Pearl

The employment of the adverb “all” (Pearl) and the adjective “same” (Pearl) functions as a generalizing mechanism in her evaluation, despite the observable non-identical nature of the figures. Pearl subsequently attributes the unfamiliar features to national artistic conventions, stating, “Maybe it’s the style of Chinese painting” (Pearl). However, a semantic contrast soon emerges between the evaluative terms “komisch” (which carries a mildly negative connotation in German) and “beautiful” (Pearl), indicating that while the figures and the “old” (Pearl) appearance of the child initially evoke a sense of foreignness, this does not ultimately compromise her affirmative appreciation of the painting. Instead, she continues to recognize a sense of calmness and harmony emanating from the artwork. This evaluative ambivalence is consistently articulated through her use of modal verbs and hedging expressions, such as “I would like to say...” (Pearl), “I don’t know...” (Pearl), and the degree modifier “a little” (Pearl), all of which signal an ongoing negotiation of uncertainty and acceptance.

Dissenting Evaluation

Within the context of intercultural art communication, interviewees also express dissenting evaluations, manifesting in feelings of aversion, skepticism, or rejection toward certain aspects of the artwork. While affirmative evaluations typically arise from points of resonance grounded in participants’ cultural experiences, dissenting evaluations often emerge from perceived contradictions or conflicts between the social norms embedded in the artwork and those within the interviewee’s cultural frame of reference. In such cases, participants actively reflect upon elements in the painting that violate their expectations, prompting a reassessment of cultural divergences. The following example addresses the notion of beauty ideals as a salient component of social norms:

Figure 11. A fragment from the interview with Kara

Kara employs the temporal indicator “currently” (Kara) to contrast the present with the past, projecting her modern standards of beauty onto the depiction within the painting. She conveys her surprise through the adjective “pale” (Kara), preceded by the adverb of degree “so” (Kara). Further, through the use of the adjective “sick” (Kara) and the simile “having a fever” (Kara), she assigns a distinctly negative connotation to the pale complexion presented in the artwork, associating whiteness with illness or physical frailty. When articulating a dissenting evaluation, the interviewee employs a common speech strategy aimed at softening the critical tone. This is illustrated through her use of the adverbial modifier “a little,” the subjunctive form “were” (Kara), and the modal particle “like that” (Kara), which collectively mitigate the forcefulness of her assessment.

In dissenting evaluations, interviewees typically position themselves in opposition to the imagery presented in the artwork. Although the evaluations in this study are discussed along a continuum with positive and negative poles, it must be acknowledged that, within intercultural communication, individual evaluations of art are highly variable. Such variability reflects complex underlying social and psychological factors that should be carefully considered and analyzed.

Attributing

Attributing refers to the cognitive-linguistic process through which specific characteristics are identified and assigned as belonging to a particular social or cultural group. In this process, certain traits are accentuated as core group markers, while others are minimized or subordinated. Attributing thus represents a fundamental step in differentiating the Self from the Other. From a linguistic perspective, it is crucial to observe the categories and evaluative standards interviewees employ when attributing socio-cultural meaning to specific objects, how they transfer elements of their cultural knowledge onto unfamiliar artworks, and how they simultaneously reflect on the implicit cultural meanings embedded within their own society during intercultural art encounters.

On Cultural Connotation

Figure 12.A fragment from the interview with Fiona

The initial impressions of most interviewees regarding the painting are characterized by descriptors such as “grey” (Fiona), “sad” (Fiona), and “negative” (Fiona). This perception aligns with the cultural connotation that dark colors carry negative societal meanings, particularly when contrasted with the context of family representation. Fiona, for example, articulates her interpretation of the family scene using several evaluative adjectives: “dark” (Fiona), “sad” (Fiona), “not very close” (Fiona), and “strict” (Fiona). Within her cultural framework, grey symbolizes sadness and adversity. When applied to a familial scene, this color conveys an impression of emotional distance and a lack of warmth or affection among family members.

To soften her critical evaluation—recognizing that depictions of unhappy families are relatively uncommon in artistic traditions—Fiona employs various mitigating strategies, using qualifiers such as “a little” (Fiona), “maybe” (Fiona), and “I don’t know” (Fiona). In contrast, when discussing her own cultural group, she expresses greater confidence, asserting that “the family always does something together” (Fiona). In this statement, her speech becomes notably more emphatic, particularly through her repetition of the adverb “always” (Fiona), which underscores a strong sense of cultural belonging and normative familial cohesion within her own cultural identity.

On Prototype

A prototype is defined as the most representative or typical example within a given category (Rosch, 1973). Prototype theory plays a central role in cognitive processing, as individuals frequently compare unfamiliar cultural objects with prototypes drawn from their own cultural frameworks, which may vary substantially across different cultures. Consequently, attempts to comprehend the Other often reveal the constraints imposed by one’s own prototypical structures.

For example, with regard to the concept of “mountain,” divergent prototypical understandings lead to interpretive discrepancies among the interviewees. In traditional South Chinese garden design, artificial stone mountains are commonly integrated alongside ponds, streams, bridges, and flower beds, allowing the literati to enjoy a miniature representation of nature within their personal spaces. As part of Chinese interior decorative practices, miniature mountains may even be placed in potted arrangements on tables, a practice that remains fashionable among the literati to this day. The painting examined in this study depicts such an artificial mountain, which is significantly smaller than a natural mountain. This representation challenges the interviewees’ conventional prototype of a mountain and serves as a point of interpretive discussion.

Figure 13.A fragment from the interview with Ann

Categorizing

Categorizing, in this study, is conceptualized as the cognitive and linguistic process of logically organizing phenomena into distinct groups based on one's social experience and cultural background in response to external stimuli. It involves an interplay of various cognitive functions, including perception, memory, and judgment. In the context of intercultural encounters, categorization often occurs implicitly and tacitly (Quasthoff, 1973), guided by culturally specific attributes that serve as criteria for classification. This section illustrates how interviewees employ various categorization strategies as a fundamental mechanism in differentiating the Self from the Other.

By Geographical Classification

Geographical markers—whether referencing countries, regions, or continents—are frequently employed in the interview data. When cultural characteristics are framed in terms of geographical indicators, they are generalized as emblematic traits of a specific nation or region, thus constructing collective identities for ethnic or cultural groups. In doing so, interviewees simultaneously assert their own national identities, thereby establishing a relational opposition between the Self and the Other.

Figure 14.A fragment from the interview with Yan

For instance, Yan describes the painting as “typically Chinese” (Yan), whereby the adverb “typically” combined with the geographic label “Chinese” serves to assign specific regional attributes to the artwork. She substantiates her claim by noting that the clothing depicted is “normally seen in China” (Yan), despite her having never visited China personally. In this instance, “normal” functions not as a simple adjective but as an evaluative predicate informed by second-hand cultural knowledge. Yan further characterizes the table in the image as “made of wood” (Yan), attributing its possible origin to “either from China or from Japan” (Yan). Her confidence in ascribing national characteristics is reflected in her use of adverbs such as “definitely” (Yan), the coordinating conjunction “either...or...” (Yan), and the affirmative assertion “yes” (Yan). By referencing Japan as a plausible alternative within the same cultural sphere, she emphasizes the perceived geographical and cultural proximity of the two nations. Through such generalizations, the interviewee constructs an image of China—or more broadly, “Asia in general”—that is shaped by mass media, accumulated knowledge, and shared cultural imaginaries.

By stereotype

Figure 15.A fragment from the interview with Fiona

In this study, stereotyping is examined as a social mechanism that enables individuals to make sense of unfamiliar cultural phenomena by categorizing the Other into familiar conceptual frameworks. Accordingly, categorization often draws upon culturally embedded stereotypes.

Quasthoff (1989) posits that stereotypes frequently manifest as categorical statements of the type “What is how” (e.g., “Germans are hardworking”). Such categorical reasoning is evident in the interviewees’ assertions that “the Asian culture is collective” and “the Asian culture is family-oriented.” Fiona further employs the behavioral predicate “play a role” (Fiona), intensified by the adjective “important” (Fiona), to articulate her perceptions of maternal roles both within her own culture and within Asian cultures. This reasoning leads her to identify commonalities in family values across cultural groups. Although Fiona utilizes geographic markers such as “Arab” and “Asian,” she ultimately reframes both as part of a larger cultural collective in which maternal roles are consistently undervalued. In this context, Arab and Asian cultures are similarly positioned as societies where women are frequently portrayed as subordinate.

The analysis further demonstrates that the interviewee's self-positioning remains dynamic, fluctuating in real-time as she reflects upon her lived experiences and acquired knowledge, negotiating her cultural interpretations throughout the interaction.

Discussion

This study has explored how individuals appreciate and interpret artistic works from other cultures through the theoretical lens of the Self and the Other. By centering the analysis on intercultural art communication, the study directs attention to both the cognitive mechanisms involved in differentiation and the potential for intercultural engagement through artistic experiences. The findings demonstrate that interviewees actively construct dynamic identities of both the Self and the Other across three analytical dimensions: task, means, and form. In navigating unfamiliar cultural material, participants observe, describe, interpret, and evaluate artworks based on their own cultural repertoires, while simultaneously negotiating specific elements within broader socio-cultural contexts.

The conceptual model developed in this research delineates six primary intercultural tasks: referencing, describing, interpreting, evaluating, attributing, and categorizing. Each task is accompanied by a distinct set of pragmatic strategies—termed “means”—which serve to mediate participants' attitudes and manage potential cultural tensions. These means are manifested linguistically at the “form” level through lexical choices, grammatical constructions, rhetorical patterns, and prosodic features. Empirical data drawn from interview transcripts were analyzed according to these levels, revealing the diverse linguistic and cognitive strategies participants employed when engaging with foreign artistic material.

Table 2.The following table summarizes the principal findings of the study
Task	Means	Purposes and Functions of the Means
Referencing	Distancing; Eye-catching	To connect or distance oneself from the artwork; to formulate first impressions
Describing	Guessing; Comparing	To express uncertainty; to activate prior experiences; to seek similarities and contrasts
Interpreting	Metaphorical Interpretation; Explaining with Examples	To apply conceptual metaphors; to contextualize within socio-cultural frameworks; to substantiate interpretations
Evaluating	Affirmative Evaluation; Dissenting Evaluation	To express affective responses and subjective assessments
Attributing	Cultural Connotation; Cultural Prototype	To transfer knowledge and cultural experiences; to assign cultural meanings
Categorizing	Geographical Classification; Stereotyping	To group cultural elements into recognizable categories and existing schemas

Source: By the author

Importantly, the objective of this study has not been to catalog how Western interviewees interpret Asian culture from a standpoint of cultural essentialism. Rather, it has sought to move beyond geographical and cultural reductionism by illuminating shared cognitive processes that emerge across diverse cultural encounters. While participants in this study originated from varied cultural backgrounds, their interpretations were similarly shaped by personal associations, prior knowledge, and culturally embedded frameworks. In this sense, the act of interpretation involves continuous processes of evoking, recalling, mobilizing, transferring, and synthesizing previous experiences, which participants use to make sense of unfamiliar cultural objects.

Crucially, these cognitive activities were not exclusively grounded in the artwork itself but were often directed toward broader generalizations about cultural groups. Consequently, the interviewees engaged in an ongoing negotiation of proximity and distance in relation to the cultural Other, perpetually adjusting their perceived relationships through knowledge transfer and cultural comparison.

Furthermore, these findings underscore the significant role of art as a dialogical space for intercultural engagement. The aesthetic experience of encountering unfamiliar art possesses the capacity to interrupt habitual ways of seeing, thereby preparing viewers for unexpected encounters with difference. As audiences engage with foreign art, they continuously update their internal knowledge systems, develop more nuanced criteria for aesthetic judgment, and negotiate personal and collective meanings.

In this context, educators and facilitators of intercultural learning may play a vital role by guiding audiences to reflect upon their evaluative processes and encouraging reflexivity. Viewers may be prompted to ask: How do I arrive at my evaluation? What prior knowledge informs my interpretation? What social structures underpin my perception? As Müller and Kluwe (2012: 77) observe, the narrative of art is not restricted to the “conveying of knowledge to a small circle of experts,” but is instead “contextualized within the experiential horizon of a broader audience.” Art thereby functions not merely as an object of aesthetic appreciation, but as a medium for intercultural communication and dialogue. Inviting audiences into such reflective conversations fosters deeper perspective-taking and enhances intercultural understanding.

Conclusion

This study has offered an in-depth investigation into the cognitive processes and linguistic behaviors that underlie intercultural encounters with art. By focusing on how individuals position themselves and others while interpreting unfamiliar artistic material, the study contributes new insights into the micro-level mechanisms of intercultural meaning-making.

Nevertheless, while the present findings yield important implications for intercultural art communication, they also open several avenues for future research. For instance, further inquiry is warranted into the factors that contribute to successful intercultural communication: What specific behaviors foster mutual understanding? How might these processes vary across different cultural contexts or communicative domains? Moreover, beyond the domain of art, similar mechanisms may be observable in other spheres of intercultural interaction, such as education, politics, or workplace communication.

Additionally, the present study highlights the value of ethnographic and discourse-analytic methodologies in capturing the dynamic and situated nature of intercultural exchange. However, longitudinal studies are also needed to explore how such processes unfold and evolve over time. Future research might thus fruitfully investigate the long-term development of intercultural competence as individuals engage in repeated and sustained intercultural interactions.

Acknowledgement Statement: The author would like to thank the reviewers for providing comments and helping complete this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares that he/she has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Author contribution statements: Zhang plays an important role in collecting the data, writing the essay, and developing the manuscript.

Funding: This research was supported by the University of Innsbruck under the Gold Open Access Journals project, project number: #443489.

Ethical Consideration statement: Not applicable. This study did not involve human or animal studies.

Data Availability Statement: Data is available at request. Please contact the author for any additional information on data access or usage.

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and contributor(s) and do not necessarily reflect JICC's or editors' official policy or position. All liability for harm done to individuals or property as a result of any ideas, methods, instructions, or products mentioned in the content is expressly disclaimed.

Read Counter : 674 Download : 331

Share Now

Positioning of “Self” and “Other” in the Intercultural Art Communication: a Case Study on Chinese Reverse Glass Painting

Abstract

Full text article

References

Authors

Luxi Zhang

How to Cite

Funding data

ICR Publications

Indexed

ISSN & Website Link

Contact Info

Article Sidebar

Abstract

Full text article

References

Authors

Luxi Zhang

Article Details

How to Cite

Funding data

ICR Publications

Indexed

ISSN & Website Link

Contact Info